Want to provide the best nutrition for your pet, yet don’t know what nutrients your dog or cat requires? Ever wonder why your pet needs protein and fat as part of a balanced diet? Are carbs essential to your pet? How do all the different vitamins and minerals benefit your pet’s health, and what happens if they are deficient or consumed in excess? Are homemade, raw, or vegetarian diets acceptable? The Meowing Vet answers all your pet nutrition questions. Keep reading to learn more…
Disclaimer: Nutrient requirements vary greatly among different species. This article contains general nutritional information for dogs and cats on an adult maintenance diet. It does not take into account the special dietary requirements for puppies and kittens, pregnant or nursing animals, giant breed dogs, working dogs, pets needing to lose or gain weight, or pets on special veterinary prescription diets. Always consult with your veterinarian about the specific nutrition needs and feeding recommendations for your individual pet. This article is not intended to diagnose or treat any illnesses.
Categories
Introduction
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Vitamins
Minerals
Canine and Feline Feeding Preferences
Homemade Diets
Raw Diets
Vegetarian Diets
Prescription Diets
Meat By-Products
WSAVA Guidelines and AAFCO Label
Introduction
Let’s get basic. Not Pumpkin Spice Latte basic, but basic in a definition sense. A nutrient is a substance required for a living organism to grow and thrive. Some nutrients are essential (meaning that a living being must consume them via food to provide for their requirements). Other nutrients are non-essential (i.e. the body can create its own needed supply). Nutrient categories include water, carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, and minerals. Because they are needed in larger quantities, carbs, protein, and fat are termed “macronutrients” whereas vitamins and minerals are “micronutrients” since they are required in lesser amounts.
In addition to providing plenty of fresh water to your dog or cat, your pet also requires an appropriate amount of daily calories in the form of protein, fats, (and perhaps carbohydrates) to provide for their energy requirements (neither too much nor too little). Like humans and other animal species, dogs and cats also require the vitamins and minerals discussed below.
Before you go reaching for a bottle of multivitamins for your pet, keep in mind that vitamin and mineral overdoses can be just as harmful as deficiencies, and imbalances of vitamins and minerals can pose a serious health risk for your dog or cat (such as the wrong ratio of calcium to phosphorus). Obtaining a proper amount of vitamins and minerals starts with feeding a balanced diet of a good quality pet food rather than adding further supplementation. So always consult with your personal veterinarian about your pet’s nutritional needs before tweaking your dog or cat’s diet.
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Macronutrients
Protein
Protein provides a great deal of energy to the diets of dogs and cats. Each gram of protein provides 4 kilocalories (kCal). (Each kCal is equivalent to 4.184 kilojoules, or kJ). Animal sources such as meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs contain a high amount of protein as do certain plant-based sources like legumes and certain grains, wheat protein (or gluten) and corn. As a general rule, the daily caloric allotment of canine diets should consist of 18-25% high quality protein. Cats have a higher protein requirement in comparison to dogs. High quality protein means a protein source that is abundant in an adequate amount of a variety of essential amino acids. Amino acids are the molecules that make up proteins. An essential amino acid is one in which the body cannot make at all or not enough to provide for that living organism’s requirements. Conversely, a non-essential amino acid is one in which the body can make itself.
The 10 amino acids which are essential to both dogs and cats are arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. Cats have a higher methionine requirement than dogs, and taurine is an additional amino acid essential to cats. Non-essential amino acids include alanine, cysteine, cystine,, and tyrosine. Each of these amino acids serves as building blocks to a plethora of bodily structures, essential for the composition of DNA as well as for antibodies of the immune system. Some specialized functions of various amino acids are highlighted below:
Arginine: Aids in the conversion of the toxic waste product ammonia into urea to be excreted from the body via urine. Supports the immune system. Maintains the integrity of the skin, muscles, joints, and liver. Cats that are not eating (anorexia) due to illness or that have certain diseases of the liver (such as hepatic lipidosis) may become deficient in arginine, which can lead to neurological impairment.
Histidine: Precursor of histamine, which plays a role in gastric digestion and allergic reactions.
Methionine: Aids in the formation of several important bodily molecules, such as epinephrine (a.k.a. adrenaline) and choline. Contains sulfur, a major mineral.
Tryptophan: Precursor to serotonin and melatonin, important neurotransmitters. Can be converted into vitamin B3 (niacin) in dogs.
Taurine: An Essential Amino Acid to Cats
Taurine is involved in ocular, reproductive, and cardiac health and is also used by the liver to make bile, which in turn is involved in fat digestion. Dogs can convert taurine from cysteine and methionine, provided by plant sources in the diet. Thus, taurine is not an essential amino acid for dogs. However, cats cannot perform this enzymatic conversion very well and require taurine from meat sources. Therefore, taurine is an essential amino acid for felines. Deficiency, as can occur if cats are fed a homemade diet low in taurine, can cause blindness as well as dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) which can lead to congestive heart failure (CHF). Infertility and poor growth in kittens are additional consequences of taurine deficiency in cats. Taurine deficiency is also a well-documented cause of DCM in various dog breeds.
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Fat
At 9 kCal per gram, fat is the most energy-dense nutrient. Cats are able to utilize a high fat diet more effectively than are dogs. Only feed dogs the amount of fat necessary to provide for their essential fatty acids requirements; the remainder of their caloric intake should be based on protein and some carbohydrate sources.
Fat, also termed lipid or triglyceride based on structural form, is comprised of chains of fatty acids. In fact, oil, wax, phospholipid, glycerol, glycolipid, steroids, terpenes… all of these terms refer to fats! Fats are categorized as either essential or non-essential; essential fatty acids (EFA) are those of which the body cannot make enough to fulfill nutritional requirements. Further classification is based on long-chain fatty acids which may be saturated or unsaturated; saturated fats lack double bonds, are solid at room temperature, and are primarily from animal sources whereas unsaturated fats have double bonds, derive from plants, and are liquid at room temperature. Some long-chain unsaturated fats are omega-3, omega-6, or omega-9 fatty acids (Yep. 3-6-9. Anyone else thinking of the crude yet catchy Lil Jon song lyrics?), in either cis- or trans- configuration depending on the location and rotation around double bonds. Other fats may be medium chain triglycerides (MCT) while yet others may be short chain, volatile fatty acids (VFA) as described below.
(Had enough of an organic chemistry lesson yet?! Shew! This nutrition stuff gets complicated!)
There are three essential fatty acids, all of which are long-chain unsaturated fatty acids: linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid), linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid), and arachidonic acid (the latter or which is of special significance in cats, as discussed below). Other important fatty acids of note are the volatile fatty acids (acetic acid, proprionic acid, and butyric acid), long-chain saturated fatty acids (palmitic acid and stearic acid), and long-chain unsaturated fatty acid (oleic acid). Other non-essential yet important fatty acids are the omega-3 fatty acids DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), which have potent anti-inflammatory effects.
Fats play a vital role in maintaining cell membranes across multiple body systems, by making up the coating around nerve cells, ensuring adequate cholesterol-based hormone production, maintaining a normal skin barrier, and aiding brain health. Omega-3 fatty acids also aid in diminishing inflammation and thus improving skin and hair quality as well as improving the health of joints, brain, heart, and eyes; these health benefits are the basis for the term “good fat”. When digested, fats are broken down into free fatty acids by lipase for absorption though the intestines. In order for water-soluble lipase to exert its digestive action, fats must first be properly emulsified with bile produced by the liver to be sent to the small intestine. Good sources of high quality fat include fish, some meat sources, and certain plant sources (such as chia seed, flaxseed oil, and corn oil).
Arachidonic acid: A Special Need in Cats
Arachidonic acid is an essential fatty acid to both dogs and cats. It is involved in the inflammatory response as a function of the immune system, and it also plays a role in blood clotting. Additionally, it also aids in proper functioning of the dermatological, reproductive, and gastrointestinal systems. Feline requirements for arachidonic acid are much higher than for dogs. Whereas dogs are able to convert linoleic and linolenic acids found in plant material into arachidonic acid, cats lack this ability and require arachidonic acid from an animal source. Deficiency can lead to dysfunction of the aforementioned bodily systems.
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Learn how omega-3 fatty acid supplementation, such as in fish oils, can improve your pet’s hair and skin as well as benefit eye, heart, brain, and joint health. Click here.
Carbohydrates
Are carbohydrates essential to my pet’s diet?
Cats are obligate carnivores, meaning they not only can exist healthily on a meat-only diet but they also require certain nutrients that only animal products can provide them. Therefore, cats cannot survive on a vegetarian feeding plan and should never, ever be fed a solely plant-based diet! Cats also do not process starches as well as dogs can. Now, this doesn’t necessarily mean that cats should not eat some carbohydrates. When part of a balanced diet that provides for the animal-based nutrients essential to cats, carbs can provide additional energy requirements for our kitty friends.
Dogs are a bit different. Many scientists group domesticated dogs in the “carnivore” category while others propose they best fit in the “omnivore” class. Dogs are not obligate carnivores and eat more carbohydrate sources in nature than do cats. Unlike cats, dogs can theoretically obtain all their essential nutrients from a vegetarian diet. However, a diet containing primarily meat with some plant-based food provides more adequately for the balanced nutritional needs of dogs. For this reason, I do not typically endorse a vegetarian diet for dogs either (the exception being some forms of liver disease, such as hepatic encephalopathy secondary to hepatic failure or a portosystemic shunt). At 4 kCal per gram, carbohydrates can be an excellent source of calories and energy to dogs when in moderation.
An appropriate amount of dietary fiber, a super complex carb, can be very healthy to the gastrointestinal tract of both dogs and cats and may be supplemented to manage certain GI diseases. And contrary to the beliefs of many pet owners, food allergies in dogs and cats are much more likely to be induced by a meat product rather than a grain (such as wheat or corn). Therefore, grains need not be avoided altogether in most healthy dogs. In fact, grain-free diets have recently been implicated with increased cases of atypical or nutritionally-mediated dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) in various canine breeds. DCM can lead to congestive heart failure (CHF) and death. Always consult with your veterinarian before selecting a grain-free diet for your pet.
Can a diet high in carbs cause diabetes in my pet?
A diet with an excess of carbohydrates does not appear to be a risk factor for causing a dog to develop diabetes mellitus (a metabolic disorder resulting predominately in high blood sugar). Rather, a diet too high in calories (be they from carbs, proteins, or fats) may predispose a pet to obesity and the development of diabetes mellitus. However, once a dog or cat is diabetic, managing obesity and reducing the amount of simple carbohydrates then becomes an important means of managing diabetes.
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Micronutrients
Vitamins
The main function of vitamins as a group is to serve as catalysts for various metabolic reactions across many bodily systems, aiding in the metabolism and utilization of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Vitamins may be either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) require dietary fat to be absorbed and utilized appropriately and are stored in fatty tissue (adipose). For this reason, deficiency is less common, and excessive intake can lead to worrisome side effects. On the other hand, overdosing on water-soluble vitamins (B and C) is less likely to yield deleterious side effects as these excesses of these vitamins are excreted daily in urine rather than being stored in body fat.
Vitamin A
Sources: Vitamin A (chemically called retinol) is found in certain animal products, such as liver and egg yolks. It is also found in its precursor form (carotene or carotenoids) in plants such as legumes and corn.
Metabolism: Dogs are able to convert plant-based carotene into active vitamin A whereas cats cannot and must consume vitamin A directly from animal sources.
Role: Antioxidant. Aids in vision (especially in dim light), bone formation, and in the maintenance of the integrity of multiple tissues such as the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, and urethra.
Deficiency: Night blindness, cloudiness of the corneas, dry conjunctiva. Rough hair and scaly skin. Increased risk of infection to the mucous membrane tissues listed above. Infertility.
Excess: Common causes: Consumption of excessive amounts of raw liver or cod liver oil. Results: Liver toxicity. Impaired growth in young animals. Weight loss. Constipation. Anemia (low red blood cells). Bone fractures. Cervical spondylosis in cats: a deforming over-production of abnormal bone development off the cervical vertebrae (i.e. neck portion of the spinal column).
B Vitamins
Vitamin B1 – Thiamine (also spelled thiamin)
Sources: Cereal grains, wheat germ, beans. Liver. Egg yolk.
Role: Acts as a coenzyme in the Kreb’s cycle of cellular metabolism for the production of energy (i.e. ATP).
Deficiency: Causes: Inadequate dietary intake. Consumption of certain types of raw fish (such as carp and goldfish), which may contain thiaminase, an enzyme that destroys vitamin B1. Results: Decreased appetite, weight loss, muscle weakness. Accumulation of pyruvic acid and lactic acid in bodily tissues. Neurological impairment.
Excess: Uncommon.
Thiaminase, found in some raw fish such as carp, can destroy Vitamin B1 and lead to deficiency.
Vitamin B2 – Riboflavin
Sources: Some green leafy plants. Liver.
Role: Part of the structure of flavoproteins, proteins essential to certain important cellular chemical reactions.
Deficiency: Uncommon. Slow growth in young animals. Poor appetite, vomiting.
Excess: Uncommon.
Vitamin B3 – Niacin (niacinamide)
Sources: Liver. Dogs can also make vitamin B3 from the conversion of tryptophan, an amino acid; cats lack this ability and rely on direct dietary provisions.
Role: Coenzyme for metabolic reactions.
Deficiency: Inflammation of the oral cavity and esophagus in dogs (known as “black tongue“).
Excess: Uncommon.
Vitamin B5 – Pantothenic acid
Sources: Cereal grains, peas, molasses. Liver, egg yolk.
Role: Coenzyme for metabolic reactions.
Deficiency: Poor growth in young animals. Neurological abnormalities: not able to stand, hypermetria (“goose-stepping”). Diarrhea. Hair loss and scaly skin.
Excess: Uncommon.
Vitamin B6 – Pyridoxine
Metabolism: Forms of vitamin B6 include pyridoxine, pyridoxal (the active form), and pyridoxamine.
Role: Coenzyme in reactions involving protein activity.
Deficiency: Poor growth in young animals. Poor appetite. Can cause anemia (low red blood cells). May cause convulsions.
Excess: Uncommon.
Vitamin B7 – Biotin
Role: Aids in the production of fatty acids.
Deficiency: Causes: Inadequate dietary intake. Consuming large quantities of avidin, a substance found in raw egg whites that inactivates vitamin B7. Results: Weight loss. Dermatological issues (dermatitis).
Excess: Uncommon.
Consuming avidin, found in raw egg yolks, destroys Vitamin B7 (biotin).
Vitamin B9 – Folic acid (folate)
Role: Involved in the production of several important amino acids, such as purines, serines, and glycine. Especially important in the proper development of the spinal cord during pregnancy.
Deficiency: Folic acid is more likely to be inadequate in human diets than in those of dogs and cats. Causes: Inadequate dietary intake. Prolonged administration of oral sulfonamide antibiotics (sulfa drugs), which can decrease the amount of “good bacteria” in the GI tract that helps produce folic acid. Severe gastrointestinal disease. Results: Neural tube defects in embryos, resulting in ancephaly, encephalocele, or spina bifida. Poor growth. Anemia (low red blood cells).
Excess: Uncommon. Can occur with intestinal bacterial overgrowth or exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI).
Vitamin B12 – Cobalamin (also called cyanocobalamin)
Some Giant Schnauzers may have an inherited inability to adequately absorb Vitamin B12 (cobalamin).
Sources: Primarily animal products. Like vitamin B9 (folic acid), vitamin B12 is also produced to some degree by “good bacteria” in the gut.
Utilization: For the small intestine to properly absorb vitamin B12 so that the body can utilize it, a special protein produced by the stomach known as intrinsic factor is required. Even if the diet is adequate in vitamin B12, diseases of the GI tract can result in deficiency of this vitamin due to failure of the body to use it properly. Injectable rather than oral supplementation is therefore required.
Role: Coenzyme in several cellular reactions. Maintains the structural integrity of red blood cells. Its structure requires cobalt, a mineral (see below).
Deficiency: Causes: Inadequate dietary intake. Gastrointestinal disease. Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). Inherited cobalamin malabsorption of Giant Schnauzers. Chronic intestinal bacterial overgrowth. Chronic use of H2 blockers (antacids, such as famotidine). Results: Poor growth. Pernicious anemia (low level of red blood cells due to a vitamin B12 deficiency).
Excess: Uncommon.
Vitamin C – Ascorbic Acid
Role: Antioxidant. Cellular metabolic reactions. Wound healing. May be used as a natural packaged food preservative.
Deficiency: Deficiency is unlikely to occur in dogs and cats since their bodies produce their own requirements. In species such as humans, other primates, and guinea pigs, poor wound healing and scurvy can occur (see below).
Excess: Overdosing on vitamin C is unlikely to induce consequences. Since vitamin C is water-soluble, ingested excesses are excreted in urine.
Fun Fact: Dogs and cats can make their own vitamin C requirements whereas guinea pigs and primates (including humans) cannot. In order to prevent poor wound healing as well as scurvy (a deficiency of vitamin C leading to abnormalities ranging from lethargy, gum disease, bone and muscle pain, etc.), guinea pigs and primates must obtain their vitamin C needs from dietary intake.
Dogs and cats make their own Vitamin C requirements whereas guinea pigs and primates, including humans, must obtain Vitamin C from food.
Vitamin D
Sources: Fish liver oils (such as cod liver oil) and egg yolks.
Metabolism: The two important forms of vitamin D (a.k.a. calciferol) are D2 (ergosterol), found in plant material, and D3 (cholecalciferol or 7-dehydrocholesterol) as found in animal tissue. When the precursors to vitamins D2 and D3 are exposed to ultraviolet rays (such as occurs when the skin is exposed to sunlight), they yield their activated forms. Vitamin D3 is additionally converted to 25-hydroxycholecalciferol in the liver with additional processing by the kidney to create 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol in order to increase the potency of its action on the body.
Role: Acts as a hormone for the regulation and utilization of calcium and phosphorus: increases the intestinal absorption of these minerals from the GI tract and assists the movement of calcium and phosphorus into bone for skeletal development.
Deficiency: Weak, easily broken bones with bowed limbs (termed rickets in young animals and osteomalacia in older animals).
Excess: Common cause: Ingestion of vitamin D-based rat poison or calcipotriene (Dovonex®), a human psoriasis cream. Results: Can lead to excessive amounts of calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream, triggering the development of spontaneous mineral deposits in various tissues and organs. Mineralization in the heart and kidneys can cause dangerous cardiac arrhythmias and acute renal failure, respectively.
Vitamin E
Sources: Vitamin E (or tocopherols) can be found in wheat germ, some green plant material, as well as soybean, peanut, and cottonseed oils. Vitamin E appears to work in synergy with the mineral selenium.
Role: Antioxidant. Multiple cellular metabolic reactions, including the metabolism of DNA. Aids in the production of vitamin C. Possible anticoagulant (i.e. blood thinning) properties. May be used as a natural preservative in multiple packaged food products.
Deficiency: Vitamin E deficiency is more likely to cause a variety of severe health problems in food animals rather than in dogs and cats. Such health concerns include brain deterioration, muscular degeneration, liver failure, blood protein destruction, the oxidation of body fat, and reproductive abnormalities.
Excess: May cause bleeding abnormalities and interference with the activity of vitamin K. May decrease thyroid hormone production.
Vitamin K
Sources: Green leafy pants. Fish meal. Egg yolks. Produced in the GI tract by microbes (“good” bacteria). Several forms of vitamin K exist, including K1 (phyloquinone), K2 (naphthoquinone), and the most active form: synthetic K3 (menadione).
Role: Aids in cellular metabolism. Plays a significant role in the formation of prothrombin, a product essential for blood clotting.
Deficiency: Common causes: Ingestion of vitamin K antagonist rat poisons or human blood thinners, such as warfarin (Coumadin®). Results: Poor blood clotting ability, skin bruising (petechia and ecchymosis), internal hemorrhage, death.
Excess: Unlikely to have dangerous consequences.
Choline
Role: Choline is sort of a vitamin in its actions, although some nutritionists do not consider it a true vitamin since the consumption of other dietary compounds, such as methionine, preclude its requirement. Choline adds methyl groups to organic compounds during cellular reactions. Its derivative, acetylcholine (ACh), also aids in the transmission of nerve cell signaling.
Deficiency: Uncommon.
Excess: Uncommon.
Learn more about the dangers of various rat poisons (a.k.a. rodenticides) such as those that are vitamin D-based or vitamin K antagonists. Rat bait can be deadly to your dog or cat if accidentally consumed, so consider humane alternatives. Click here.
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Minerals
Major Minerals
Calcium
Role: Skeleton formation. Blood clotting. Muscle contraction, including normal function of the heart muscle.
Deficiency: Causes: Disorders of the parathyroid glands (hypoparathyroidism or secondary nutritional hyperparathyroidism). Vitamin D deficiency. Pregnancy eclampsia. Chronic use of furosemide (Lasix®). Results: Weak, easily broken bones with bowed limbs (termed rickets in young animals and osteomalacia in older animals). Abnormal muscle contraction, including poor heart function.
Excess: Causes: Other disorders of the parathyroid glands (primary hyperparathyroidism). Vitamin D overdose. Pancreatic disease. Renal failure. Hypoadrenocorticism (Addison’s disease). Certain bone diseases and cancers. Results: Abnormal action of the muscular and nervous systems. Mineralization in various tissues and organs; mineral deposits in the heart and kidneys can cause dangerous cardiac arrhythmias and acute renal failure, respectively.
Phosphorus
Role: Skeleton formation. Adds to the structure of cell membranes as phospholipids. Vital to the cellular metabolism of energy production (ATP).
Deficiency: Causes: Disorders of the parathyroid glands (primary hyperparathyroidism). Fanconi syndrome. Pregnancy eclampsia. Certain cancers. Re-feeding syndrome. Results: Weak, easily broken bones with bowed limbs (termed rickets in young animals and osteomalacia in older animals). Inability for proper energy production. Cellular membrane disruption.
Excess: Causes: Other disorders of the parathyroid glands (hypoparathyroidism). Vitamin D overdose. Hyperthyroidism. Renal disease. Certain bone and muscle diseases. Results: As for calcium excess, mineral deposits can develop in various tissues and organs.
Potassium
Role: Potassium is a vital electrolyte that plays a key role in electrical conduction in and among cells, particularly important for muscle and cardiac contractions. Even small changes in the body’s potassium level can cause significant consequences.
Deficiency: Causes: Poor appetite (anorexia). Treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Chronic kidney disease. Vomiting or diarrhea. Results: Weakness. Poor coordination and weak muscle contractions. Poor appetite.
Excess: Causes: Rupture of the urinary bladder or urethral blockage. Hypoadrenocorticism (Addison’s disease). Results: Dangerously low heart rate (bradycardia) or cardiac arrest; cardiac arrhythmia (abnormal heart rhythm).
Sodium
Role: Sodium is another major electrolyte found in salt (NaCl). It stabilizes correct fluid volume in the bloodstream and aids in the conduction of electrical activity in and between cells. If sodium is too high or too low, it can be perilous by affecting both blood flow and neurological function.
Deficiency: Causes: Kidney disease or rupture of the urinary bladder. Gastrointestinal disease. Large skin wounds (such as burns). Liver failure. Congestive heart failure. Hypoadrenocorticism (Addison’s disease). Results: Swelling of the brain, leading to neurological impairment and oftentimes death.
Excess: Causes: Excessive intake. Dehydration. Fever. Diabetes insipidus. Severe diarrhea. Results: High blood pressure (hypertension). Fluid loss from the brain, causing significant neurological dysfunction.
Chloride
Role: Chloride is another major electrolyte and binds with sodium as part of dietary salt (NaCl). It balances sodium and potassium during electrical activity across cells.
Deficiency: Uncommon. Causes: Chronic kidney disease. Gastrointestinal disease. Large skin wounds (such as burns). Gastric dilatation-volvulus (GDV). Ileus (decreased intestinal movement). Results: Negative consequences are primarily attributed to concurrent low levels of sodium.
Excess: Causes: Fever. Kidney disease. Diarrhea. Diabetes insipidus. Results: Negative consequences to the body are primarily due to simultaneously high levels of sodium.
Curious how to interpret your dog or cat’s bloodwork, including knowing what their electrolyte levels mean? Click here for information on analyzing your pet’s lab tests.
Magnesium
Role: Skeleton formation. Serves as a catalyst for many important chemical reactions in the body. Involved in the regulation of acetylchloine (ACh), a vital neurotransmitter.
Deficiency: Can cause muscle fatigue and pain (tetany). Uncommon in dogs and cats overall, though renal and gastrointestinal diseases as well as diabetes mellitus and severe malnutrition can lead to low magnesium levels.
Excess: Can cause fast heart rate (tachycardia) and heart arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms). Uncommon in dogs and cats.
Sulfur
Role: Serves as a structural component in the makeup of certain amino acids (cysteine, cystine, and methionine) as well as some vitamins (vitamin B1/thiamine and vitamin B7/biotin). Maintains the integrity of connective tissues.
Deficiency: Uncommon in dogs and cats.
Excess: Uncommon in dogs and cats.
Trace Elements
Iron
Role: Part of hemoglobin, a protein that transports oxygen to all cells of the body. Also serves in many enzymatic reactions throughout the body.
Deficiency: Causes: Malnutrition. Blood loss. Results: Weakness. Shortness of breath. Iron-deficiency anemia (low red blood cell count).
Excess: Uncommon overall, but can rarely cause hemochromatosis due to genetic errors of metabolizing iron. Hemochromatosis can cause significant joint, heart, and liver damage as well as certain cancers.
Cobalt
Role: Part of the structure of vitamin B12 (cobalamin).
Deficiency: Weight loss. Pernicious anemia (low red blood cells secondary to vitamin B12 deficiency).
Excess: Uncommon.
Chromium
Role: Used in the metabolism of carbohydrates.
Deficiency: Uncommon; no side effects of chromium deficiency have been reported.
Excess: Uncommon.
Copper
Role: Required for hemoglobin to appropriately bind iron for the transport of oxygen through the bloodstream. Also needed for connective tissue growth and maintenance.
Deficiency: Uncommon in dogs and cats. Results: Iron-deficiency anemia (low red blood cells). Poor growth. Bone disorders.
Excess: Results (read below): Toxic to sheep. Liver disease in dogs that have copper storage hepatopathy, causing vomiting and icterus (or jaundice, i.e. yellowing of the skin and sclera, or white portion of the eyes).
Not-So-Fun Facts: Copper can be especially toxic to sheep when supplemented in high doses incorrectly. Additionally, some dog breeds may have a genetic inability for the liver to appropriately excrete excess dietary copper into bile for removal via feces. This can lead to an abnormal accumulation of excessive copper in the liver known as copper storage hepatopathy, leading to hepatic dysfunction and scarring (cirrhosis). Breeds most likely to develop copper storage hepatopathy include Bedlington terriers, Doberman pinschers, Labrador retrievers, West Highland White terriers, and Skye terriers. Females tend to be at higher risk than males of these breeds to develop disease. Treatment, in part, involves switching to a diet low in copper.
Bedlington terriers are at increased risk of developing copper storage hepatopathy.
Zinc
Role: Aids in skin health and possible immune system support.
Deficiency: Zinc responsive dermatosis (a.k.a. zinc deficiency dermatitis) in dogs, causing skin scaling and redness as well as hair loss. Diarrhea. Abnormal behavior and neurological activity.
Excess: Uncommon.
Manganese
Role: Aids in the development and maintenance of healthy bone and connective tissue.
Deficiency: Uncommon.
Excess: Uncommon.
Molybdenum
Role: Plays a role in several enzymatic processes in cellular reactions.
Deficiency: Uncommon; no side effects of deficiency have been reported.
Excess: Overdose yields significant side effects! Causes: Supplement overdose. Results: Nausea, vomiting. Increased heart rate (tachycardia). Increased respiratory rate (tachypnea). Coma. Death.
Iodine
Role: Used by the thyroid glands to produce thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormones are vital to the body’s metabolism of protein, carbohydrates, and fats; they also play a role in managing correct calcium balance in the body, proper heart rate and rhythm, the sleep cycle, and development of healthy pregnancies.
Deficiency: Goiter (also spelled goitre) development, or an enlarged thyroid gland seen as a swelling in the throat region. Low thyroid hormone production (hypothyroidism). Infertility. Cretinism (abnormal neurological development) in fetuses.
Excess: Rare. Can cause a burning sensation in the mouth and GI tract; fever; nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea; weak pulse; breathing impairment; and coma.
Click here to learn more about feline hyperthyroidism and radioactive iodine treatment… ☢ or click here for information on canine hypothyroidism.
Fluorine
Role: Proper levels of fluorine (commonly referred to as fluoride) strengthen bones and teeth. Just like Goldilocks, fluorine levels need to be just right since too high or too low fluorine can cause weak, soft bones.
Deficiency: Weak, soft bones.
Excess: Weak, soft bones.
Selenium
Role: Acts in synergy with vitamin E to serve as an antioxidant.
Deficiency: Uncommon in dogs and cats.
Excess: Uncommon in dogs and cats.
Ultra Trace Elements
Some nutritionists term the following list of minerals “ultra trace elements”. These minerals do not typically require dietary supplementation since they are needed in such tiny amounts. Therefore, their requirements are met by environmental contact.
Ultra Trace Elements: Aluminum, Arsenic, Boron, Bromine, Cadmium, Lithium, Nickel, Lead, Silicon, Tin, Vanadium
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Feeding Preferences
The nutritional needs among dog breeds does not vary significantly, so breed-specific diets is not necessary and is largely a marketing ploy. The greatest difference to consider is the amount to feed dogs of different sizes (which also differs based on various ages and activity levels). Bring the nutrition label of your pet’s food brand to your personal vet to ensure that you’re feeding your dog (or cat) the appropriate amount. Most adult dogs may adequately obtain their daily caloric and other nutrient requirements in a once or twice daily feeding regimen; ideally, I recommend twice daily feeding. (Young puppies and dogs with special dietary needs may require more frequent feedings.) Your dog’s circadian rhythm is like a built-in clock, so keep your dog on a schedule and try to feed them the same food at each meal to prevent unwittingly creating a picky eater as well as inducing vomiting and diarrhea. And remember, treats are not meant to be meal replacements as they are often high in empty calories (excessive calories without other nutritional value), so only feed treats in moderation. (Discover low-calorie treat options on The Meowing Vet’s Pet Shopping page!)
Cats, however, prefer to eat 12-20 small meals per day and are less affected by the circadian rhythm. The NoBowl Feeding System™, created by veterinarian Dr. Liz Bales, is an excellent system for simulating the innate hunting nature of cats to eat multiple mini meals daily. Your curious kitty may also enjoy switching up his or her routine a little bit (not enough to induce stress) in order to be more enticed to eat. Cats are more satiated based on the bulk of their food, meaning how full the volume of their food makes them feel. Canned cat food contains more moisture content (excellent for urinary tract health too!), which may help your cat feel more full than from consuming solely dry food. This can aid in weight management as well. As discussed previously, cats are obligate carnivores and should never be fed a vegetarian diet.
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Learn more about The NoBowl Feeding System™, the world’s first and only veterinary-created humane indoor hunting system for cats! Click here for details.
Special Diets
Homemade Diets
Though time-consuming for some pet owners, others view cooking for their pets as a highly rewarding process. However, ensuring proper nutritional balance with homemade diets can be a highly difficult feat, especially for cats whose dietary needs vary greatly from our own. And some human foods can be extremely toxic to our pets! So before you go scouring the Internet for homemade pet food recipes, I highly encourage you to seek a commercially-available complete pet food (ideally, with an AAFCO seal, as described below) or else discuss the appropriateness of a homemade diet with your pet’s personal veterinarian. Your vet can further point you in the direction of a specialized veterinary nutritionist who can analyze your recipes and/or come up with a complete and balanced diet specifically formulated for your individual fur-baby. Resources your personal vet may suggest include BalanceIT.
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Did you know that onions and garlic as well as grapes and raisins are very toxic to dogs and cats? Refresh your knowledge of human foods that are toxic to pets.
Raw Diets
This topic is a controversial one surrounded by years of nutritional pseudoscience and marketing ploys. Many pet owners feel that feeding uncooked meats, poultry, seafood, and eggs are beneficial to the health of their dogs and cats by providing more nutrients. Not only is this belief scientifically unfounded, but the consumption of raw diets can be hazardous not only to your pet’s health but to your health as well. As described in the video below, raw meat can carry a high amount of harmful bacteria (including E. coli, Salmonella, Listeria, and Campylobacter) and other parasites, which can make you and your pet ill. Advocates of the BARF diet (a.k.a. Biologically Appropriate Raw Food diet or Bones And Raw Food diet) suggest that by feeding raw meat, the gastric pH is lowered enough to kill any potential pathogenic bacteria on the food; this is also oftentimes false, thus putting these pets at risk. Furthermore, raw food diets contaminated with Campylobacter have been linked to paralysis-causing immune-mediated peripheral neuropathies in canines, such as acute polyradiculoneuritis.
Additionally, some raw foods can lead to vitamin deficiencies. As discussed in the “Vitamins” section above, thiaminase, an enzyme found in certain raw fish such as carp or goldfish, can destroy vitamin B1 (thiamine) if your pet consumes excessive amounts. Similarly, avidin as found in raw egg whites, leads to the destruction of vitamin B7 (biotin). For these reasons, I strongly discourage feeding your dog or cat a raw diet. This recommendation encapsulates uncooked freeze-dried foods as well, as the freezing process often does not kill pathogenic bacteria. (The exception to my general rule is the role of feeding raw pancreas to dogs with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency.) Proper cooking destroys thiaminase and avidin as well as most bacteria.
Pet owners who feed a raw diet may argue that their dogs and cats are thriving on such a feeding regimen and have had none of the issues addressed above; they attribute their pets’ good health to the raw food. This is likely coincidental rather than a cause-and-effect situation. Think of raw food like driving your car down a narrow, winding country road while surpassing the speed limit. You may go years and years without being caught by a police officer for speeding. However, chances are, you’re eventually going to be slapped with a speeding ticket, or worse: be involved in a horrific automobile accident. Why take that risk? If you’re worried about feeding a commercial diet, avoid raw diets and either find a commercial diet that carries an AAFCO label (read more below) or discuss a nutritionally balanced homemade diet with your veterinarian or veterinary nutritionist.
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Vegetarian Diets
We touched on vegetarian diets a bit in the “Carbohydrates” section of this article above. The bottom line is that cats are obligate carnivores and can obtain certain nutrients only from animal sources, so they should never be fed a vegetarian diet. Serious health effects due to deficiencies of taurine, arachidonic acid, vitamin A, and vitamin B3 can occur when cats are fed a strict plant-based diet. In theory, dogs can obtain all their essential nutrients from a vegetarian diet. However, a diet primarily consisting of meat with some plant material tends to make for a more easily balanced diet for dogs’ nutrient requirements.
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Prescription Diets
If your veterinarian discusses the need for a special prescription diet for your dog or cat, I strongly urge you to agree for your pet’s well-being. A multitude of health problems can be significantly managed on special diets, ranging from food allergies, skin problems, dental disease, gastrointestinal disorders, metabolic diseases such as hyperthyroidism or diabetes mellitus, kidney and lower urinary tract diseases, liver diseases, weight management, joint pain, stress, and cognitive dysfunction (“dementia”). Several reputable companies specially formulate these diets to ensure that your pet’s nutrient requirements are met while his or her specific medical disorder is addressed.
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Meat By-Products
Don’t let the term “by-product” turn you off! Animal by-products is a lump-all phrase for offal (organ meats and entrails), which are high in nutritional value and are the same portions of animal that wild canids and felids (and pet dogs and cats if they had to hunt) would eat first. In fact, one of the first parts of prey that wolves and other wild canids often eat before peripheral muscle are portions of the intestinal tract, which (since their prey are usually herbivores) tend to be full of partially digested carbohydrates. Wild canids and felids also eat other vital organs, including the heart muscle and liver since these organs are so chock-full of nutrients. So, no need to avoid by-products!
Furthermore, bone meal may be a component of some pet foods. Ground bone offers excellent nutrients, such as dietary calcium. However, never feed your dog or cat whole or pieces of meat, poultry, or fish bones. Swallowing large pieces of bone can cause an obstructing gastrointestinal foreign body, requiring surgery, and sharp shards of bone can induce significant damage to your pet’s GI tract.
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WSAVA Guidelines and AAFCO Label
Not all commercial diets are created the same. Yes, some are equivalent to eating fast food while other brands are very nutritious and contain whole foods with little preservatives or processing. I teach my clients that a rule of thumb is to choose a pet diet that follows WSAVA global nutrition guidelines and bears an AAFCO label, ensuring that the food is quality assured (safe to eat) and nutritionally sound. (WSAVA is The World Small Animal Veterinary Association, and AAFCO is The Association of American Feed Control Officials.) WSAVA guidelines translate globally, and although AAFCO is based in the United States, their standards for ensuring that a commercial pet food is nutritionally adequate and balanced are recognized internationally. Examples of such diets that pass WSAVA guidelines and feature the AAFCO seal on the product packaging while providing good quality for reasonable affordability include Purina One and Hill’s Science Diet pet food formulas. (By no means is this an exhaustive list!)
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For more veterinary nutrition resources that you can trust, check out these reputable recommendations by @NUTRITIONRVN.
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Bon appétit to you and your pet! The Meowing Vet is happy to share our nutrition knowledge to assist you in understanding the importance of nutrient-rich food and a well-balanced diet for your dogs and cats!
– Maranda Elswick, DVM
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Special thanks to Dr. Dale M. Forsyth of the Animal Science Department of Purdue University for information.
